Health Traditions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Health Traditions - Essay Example As the discussion highlights cltural imposition- cultural imposition is the tendency by a nurse to apply the majority culture on every individual without any further probing. Cultural imposition has led to the abuse of other community cultures. Through the heritage kit, a nurse shall know the different cultures of every individual. This will help him deal with every patient at individual cultural level. For instance, there are cultures which do not allow the eating of certain foods that majority eats. Therefore, the health provider must not recommend such food to the individual, as that will be cultural imposition. Cultural sensitivity- this is when both verbal and non-verbal language is used in a very respectful way as not to offend any individual in the community. For this reason, a health provider will be obliged to use more polite language when handling clients. Some words may be universally accepted but prohibited by a certain community. By assessing a family using the heritage kit, a health provider shall be able to deeply understand the language norms of that particular community and thus help him avoid the use of certain words on patients. From this paper it is clear that diversity- diversity is the general variation in the society. When an assessment carried out using the heritage is closely evaluated, a heath provider gets to know the level of diversity in a particular community. He will be able to know in exact numbers, for instance, how many orphaned children are in the community so that they can be provided for.

Introduction to programming Essay Example for Free

Introduction to programming Essay As this course is titled â€Å"Introduction to programming†, therefore it is most essential and appropriate to understand what programming really means. Let us first see a widely known definition of programming. Definition: A program is a precise sequence of steps to solve a particular problem.† It means that when we say that we have a program, it actually mean that we know about a complete set activities to be performed in a particular order. The purpose of these activities is to solve a given problem. Alan Perlis, a professor at Yale University, says: See more: how to write an introduction paragraph for an essay It goes against the grain of modern education to teach children to program. What fun is there in making plans, acquiring discipline in organizing thoughts, devoting attention to detail and learning to be self-critical? It is a sarcastic statement about modern education, and it means that the modern education is not developing critical skills like planning, organizing and paying attention to detail. Practically, in our day to day lives we are constantly planning, organizing and paying attention to fine details (if we want our plans to succeed). And it is also fun to do these activities. For example, for a picnic trip we plan where to go, what to wear, what to take for lunch, organize travel details and have a good time while doing so. When we talk about computer programming then as Mr. Steve Summit puts it â€Å"At its most basic level, programming a computer simply means telling it what to do, and this vapid-sounding definition is not even a joke. There are no other truly fundamental aspects of computer programming; everything else we talk about will simply be the details of a particular, usually artificial, mechanism for telling a computer what to do. Sometimes these mechanisms are chosen because they have been found to be convenient for programmers (people) to use; other times they have been chosen because theyre easy for the computer to understand. The first hard thing about programming is to learn, become comfortable with, and accept these artificial mechanisms, whether they make sense to you or not. â€Å" Why Programming is important The question most of the people ask is why should we learn to program when there are so many application software and code generators available to do the task for us. Well the answer is as give by the Matthias Felleisen in the book ‘How to design programs’ â€Å"The answer consists of two parts. First, it is indeed true that traditional forms of programming are useful for just a few people. But, programming as we the authors understand it is useful for everyone: the administrative secretary who uses spreadsheets as well as the high-tech programmer. In other words, we have a broader notion of programming in mind than the traditional one. We explain our notion in a moment. Second, we teach our idea of programming with a technology that is based on the principle of minimal intrusion. Hence, our notion of programming teaches problem-analysis and problem-solving skills without imposing the overhead of traditional programming notations and tools.† Hence learning to program is important because it develops analytical and problem solving abilities. It is a creative activity and provides us a mean to express abstract ideas. Thus programming is fun and is much more than a vocational skill. By designing programs, we learn many skills that are important for all professions. These skills can be summarized as: Critical reading Analytical thinking Creative synthesis What skills are needed Programming is an important activity as people life and living depends on the programs one make. Hence while programming one should Paying attention to detail Think about the reusability. Think about user interface Understand the fact the computers are stupid Comment the code liberally Paying attention to detail In programming, the details matter. This is a very important skill. A good programmer always analyzes the problem statement very carefully and in detail. You should pay attention to all the aspects of the problem. You cant be vague. You cant describe your program 3/4th of the way, then say, You know what I mean?, and have the compiler figure out the rest. Furthermore you should pay attention to the calculations involved in the program, its flow, and most importantly, the logic of the program. Sometimes, a grammatically correct sentence does not make any sense. For example, here is a verse from poem Through the Looking Glass written by Lewis Carol: â€Å"Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe â€Å" The grammar is correct but there is no meaning. Similarly, the sentence, Mr. ABC sleeps thirty hours every day, is grammatically correct but it is illogical. So it may happen that a program is grammatically correct. It compiles and runs but produces incorrect or absurd results and does not solve the problem. It is very important to pay attention to the logic of the program. Think about the reusability When ever you are writing a program, always keep in mind that it could be reused at some other time. Also, try to write in a way that it can be used to solve some other related problem. A classic example of this is: Suppose we have to calculate the area of a given circle. We know the area of a circle is (Pi * r2). Now we have written a program which calculates the area of a circle with given radius. At some later time we are given a problem to find out the area of a ring. The area of the ring can be calculated by subtracting the area of outer circle from the area of the inner circle. Hence we can use the program that calculates the area of a circle to calculate the area of the ring. Think about Good user interface As programmers, we assume that computer users know a lot of things, this is a big mistake. So never assume that the user of your program is computer literate. Always provide an easy to understand and easy to use interface that is self explanatory. Understand the fact that computers are stupid Computers are incredibly stupid. They do exactly what you tell them to do: no more, no less unlike human beings. Computers cant think by themselves. In this sense, they differ from human beings. For example, if someone asks you, â€Å"What is the time?†, â€Å"Time please?† or just, â€Å"Time?† you understand anyway that he is asking the time but computer is different. Instructions to the computer should be explicitly stated. Computer will tell you the time only if you ask it in the way you have programmed it. When youre programming, it helps to be able to think as stupidly as the computer does, so that you are in the right frame of mind for specifying everything in minute detail, and not assuming that the right thing will happen by itself. Comment the code liberally Always comment the code liberally. The comment statements do not affect the performance of the program as these are ignored by the compiler and do not take any memory in the computer. Comments are used to explain the functioning of the programs. It helps the other programmers as well as the creator of the program to understand the code. Program design recipe In order to design a program effectively and properly we must have a recipe to follow. In the book name ‘How to design programs’ by Matthias Felleisen.and the co-worker, the idea of design recipe has been stated very elegenlty as â€Å"Learning to design programs is like learning to play soccer. A player must learn to trap a ball, to dribble with a ball, to pass, and to shoot a ball. Once the player knows those basic skills, the next goals are to learn to play a position, to play certain strategies, to choose among feasible strategies, and, on occasion, to create variations of a strategy because none fits. â€Å"

3 Traits to Being a Successful Politician :: essays research papers

As a young kindergarten student at naptime, I was always restless, simply because my playing such a small role in the world seemed inadequate to me at the time. As the years wore on, though, I realized that the saying, â€Å"You must crawl before you can walk,† is very true. Every great person had to endure being a child, teenager, and so forth. Therefore, I no longer wish to be older. These transitional years are the years in which we learn the most. Being so motivated at the age of five points directly to the traits I had and still have to this day.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Big dreams are all I’ve ever known. I think that will be one key to my success. The ambition I have to create myself into the most powerful and effective person I can be always presides with me. So long as I keep a strong attitude, I have no doubt that I will inevitably become what I’ve always dreamed I would be. Looking back when I’m older, I want to be able to say, â€Å"This is my life, and I’m happy with who I am and what I’ve accomplished.† I have this strange feeling that I was meant to be someone special, and I plan on satisfying that feeling.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  No matter what profession you go in, I firmly believe in being passionate about it. Your work is so much more productive when you feel strongly about the subject in question! I possess a passion for two things that only a few people can understand at my age. Those would be history and government. They found their way into my heart, all because of my eighth grade American history teacher. For all I know, she could have thought I was just brownnosing, but I truly found my calling because of her.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last trait I have that I think will benefit me as a politician is just pure love for everyone. Sadly enough, I see people today who disrespect each other for no reason at all. It’s disheartening and makes me have a tinge of disgust for mankind. I, on the other hand, believe that everyone deserves to be treated with respect, despite what they may say or do to me. I, personally, think my love for people and desire to help in any and every way I can makes me an excellent candidate for governmental offices.

Does Birth Order Have an Effect on Intelligence

In 1874 Francis Galton reported that firstborn children were overrepresented as high achievers in various scientific fields. There were flaws in Galton's methodology, for instance, he did not count female children in his results. Male subjects were counted as a first born even if they were the tenth child, but the nine older siblings were female (Esping, 2003). However, Galton’s conclusion that birth order correlates with intelligence and academic attainment remains popular. Even in the last decade, other researchers, in both Europe and North America, have confirmed and reasserted Galton’s conclusion. What studies have demonstrated that birth order influences intelligence and/or achievement? Research by Christensen and Bjerkedal concluded that birth order has a small impact on educational attainment (Christensen & Bjerkedal, 2010). That conclusion has also been reported by other related studies. Analysis of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS) show that birth order has an effect on educational attainment and intelligence (Retherford & Sewell, 1991 and Rodgers, Cleveland, van den Oord & Rowe, 2000). Also, earlier research on Norwegian male military conscripts also demonstrated that birth order impacts on intelligence (Bjerkedal et al., 2007). The confluence model theorizes that first born children are raised in an adult oriented, highly intellectual environment. Also, when first born children interact with their younger they adopt the role of teacher. This is known as the tutor effect (Zajonc& Sullaway ,2007). Are studies that support birth order effect on intelligence and/educational attainment flawed? Wichman, Rodgers and MacCallum suggest a critical flaw in previous research that supports that birth order has an effect on intelligence and/or educational attainment They suggest that in larger families the first born is equally intelligent as the fourth-born child, but they are not as intelligent as children from a smaller family (Wichman et al,2006). The studies that demonstrate a link between educational attainment and/or intelligence and birth order have been criticized by other researchers. However, according to the confluence model it is only as children with younger siblings approach adulthood that they finally achieve maximum benefit from teaching their younger siblings, as it typically increases their efforts to do well scholastically (Zanjonc & Sulloway, 2007). What factors other than birth order influence intelligence and or achievement? Wichman, Rodgers and MacCallum argue that the findings were a result of differences between families, not within families. They suggest that the younger a mother is at the birth of her first child will result in lower intelligence scores within the family. Younger mothers tend to be less educated, have more children and lower income. When researchers controlled for mother’s age at first birth, the effect on birth order on intelligence was nearly eliminated. In their opinion birth order appears to have an effect on intelligence, but that’s only because larger families don’t have the advantages of smaller families. Family environment and genetic influences are the most important factors and they may override birth order (Wichman et al., 2006).

Environmental Issues Associated with Paints and Varnishes Essay

The paint and coatings manufacturing industry is one of the major chemical processing industries. The major environmental impacts of paints and varnishes are concerning their content of solvents and other chemicals. There is a need to encourage manufacturers to use less of these substances, and to ensure proper environmental management throughout the manufacturing process. Procurement of paints and varnishes is classified as having a high environmental profile and some risk of developing world supply chains. Summary of Life Cycle Record Raw MaterialUse †¢Raw materials include solvents, pigments, dyes, and other chemicals. In addition, other raw materials are used to thin oil-based paints and stains or to clean up the residues left behind, such as turpentine and mineral spirits. †¢Some paints contain petroleum-based by products of the oil industry†¢The main uses of paints and varnishes are for architectural use (e.g. DIY), industrial use and automotive use. †¢VOCs may be released during use. †¢Some paints can emit noxious gases such as toluene and xylene, which are known carcinogens. ManufactureWaste Management/Disposal †¢The main components of the manufacture process are synthesis in a reactor, filtration, blending with other additives and packagingPaint related waste is often categorised as hazardous (special waste) due to its chemical content. Waste Management/Disposal options include: †¢Recycling †¢Incineration Key Impacts and Priority Mitigation Measures The key impacts in relation to paints and varnishes are: †¢Raw materials are often non-renewable and can be based on oil solvents †¢Solvent release, more specifically releases of VOCs to the atmosphere, which contribute to ground-level ozone, global warming and some have specific health effects. (There are more VOCs in gloss than emulsion) †¢Dyes and other chemicals used can also be harmful to health and the environment. †¢Wastewater and other solutions from washing of brushes and other application devices might contain these pollutants. †¢Energy is used during the processing stages. †¢Packaging materials are likely to contain traces of product / solvent residues, which can lead to direct release to the environment through evaporation. †¢Some paints can emit noxious gases such as toluene and xylene, which are known carcinogens. In 1989 the World Health Organisation’s International Agency for Research on Cancer found that professional painters and decorators face a 40% increased chance of contracting cancer. †¢Paint waste at end of life is classed as a hazardous (special) waste. Control Measures – Raw Materials and Manufacture: †¢Implement a structured and independently verified Environmental Management System (EMS) such as ISO 14001 or EMAS. This will help the company use resources efficiently and prevent or minimise pollution. †¢Ensure systems are in place to control loss and wastage of toxic ingredients, in particular solvent management plans. †¢Avoidance of the use of heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, hexavalent chromium, mercury and arsenic; and other substances where possible. †¢Where possible replace toxic and persistent ingredients such as oil, solvents, chemicals and other hazardous substances with less toxic and more degradable ones. Particularly focus on lower solvent alternatives where possible. Control Measures – Procurement Action: †¢Ensure suppliers selected have a high awareness of the potential environmental impacts and are taking the appropriate mitigation measures. †¢Encourage suppliers to develop environmentally â€Å"safer† products and in particular minimise the use of solvents and other chemicals and minimise waste during processing. †¢Avoid oil or solvent based paints where feasible. †¢Be aware that some water thinnable paints contain more chemicals than the oil-based paints they are intended to replace. †¢Select suppliers that can provide more information regarding the specific raw materials they use, and also provide guidance on environmentally safe use and disposal (including packaging). †¢To avoid wasteful use of paints and varnishes ensure the purchase of only the amount required for the job. †¢Where feasible, select a supplier that will allow the return of toxic material packaging for reuse. Control Measures –Use and Waste Management/Disposal: †¢Ensure employees are trained in actions to be taken in relation to waste minimisation, waste management and health and safety †¢Ensure proper labelling and storage of toxic and hazardous materials in secure, bunded areas. †¢Ensure user is trained in instructions for use including wearing of protective equipment such as facemasks, storage conditions (e.g. placing lids on containers when not in use) and cleaning of tools. †¢Ensure adequate ventilation during application. Disclaimer: This document is based on publicly available information and provides details of the environmental impacts associated with paints and varnishes. It contains a description of most commonly used raw materials and the environmental impacts and by-products released. It should be noted that there might be some other commodity types and manufacturing processes not covered within this document.

King Philip II of Macedonia

King Philip II of Macedonia King Phillip II of Macedon reigned as King of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon from 359 BC until he was assassinated in 336 BC. King Phillip II was a member of the Argead dynasty. He was the youngest son of King Amyntas III and Eurydice I. Both of Phillip II’s older brothers, King Alexander II and Periddiccas III, died, thus allowing Phillip II to claim the throne of King as his own. King Phillip II was the father of Phillip III and Alexander the Great. He had many wives, although the exact number is disputed. The most famous of his unions was with Olympias. Together they had Alexander the Great. Military Prowess King Phillip II is noted for his military savvy. According to ancient history professor, Donald L. Wasson:   â€Å"Although he is often only remembered for being the father of  Alexander the Great,  Philip II of Macedon (reigned 359 BCE - 336 BCE) was an accomplished king and military commander in his own right, setting the stage for his son’s victory over Darius III and the conquest of Persia. Philip inherited a weak, backward country with an ineffective, undisciplined army and molded them into a formidable, efficient military force, eventually subduing the territories around Macedonia as well as subjugating most of Greece. He used bribery, warfare, and threats to secure his kingdom. However, without his insight and determination, history would never have heard of Alexander.† King Phillips Assassination King Phillip II was assassinated in October of 33 BC at Aegae, which was the capital of Macedon. A large gathering was taking place to celebrate the marriage of Phillip II’s daughter, Cleopatra of Macedon and Alexander I of Epirus. While at the gathering, King Phillip II was killed by Pausanias of Oretis, who was one of his bodyguards. Pausanias of Oretis immediately tried to escape after murdering Phillip II. He had associates stationed directly outside of Aegae who were waiting for him to make an escape. However, he was pursued, eventually caught, and killed by other members of King Phillip II’s bodyguard crew. Alexander the Great Alexander the Great was the son of Phillip II and Olympias. Like his father, Alexander the Great was a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and eventually went on to supplant his father, Phillip II, on the throne of Macedon at the young age of twenty. He followed in his father’s footsteps, basing his rule around military conquests and expansion. He focused on expansion for his empire throughout Asia and Africa. By the age of thirty, ten years after he had taken over the throne, Alexander the Great had created one of the largest empires in the entire ancient world. Alexander the Great is said to have been undefeated in battle and is remembered as one of the greatest, strongest, and most successful military generals of all time. Over the course of his reign, he founded and established many cities that were named after him, the most famous of which being Alexandria in Egypt.

Podium vs. Lectern

Podium vs. Lectern Podium vs. Lectern Podium vs. Lectern By Maeve Maddox A reader laments the confusion between these two words: Here in the United States anyway, people are constantly using the word â€Å"podium† (what you stand on) to refer to the â€Å"lectern† (what you stand behind). The reverse, not so much. Confusing these two words erodes the richness of the language. We’re on the verge of having two words for â€Å"lectern† and none for â€Å"podium.† The confusion must be widespread: the OED already notes the use of podium to denote a lectern as â€Å"North American extended use.† I’d call it â€Å"extended misuse.† And it’s not just the North Americans who confuse the words. I discovered this example in a British newspaper: Just days after Sarah Palin revealed she was â€Å"seriously interested† in running for president in 2016, she stood behind the podium at the Iowa Freedom Summit and delivered a bizarre and rambling speech to the audience.- The Independent The Associated Press Stylebook- an American publication- recognizes the difference: lectern, podium, pulpit, rostrum: A speaker stands behind a lectern, on a podium or rostrum, or in the pulpit. The word podium derives from the Latin word for foot. One stands on a podium for improved visibility. For example, a band director stands on a podium to conduct. The word lectern derives from the Latin verb legere, â€Å"to read.† Readers or speakers stand behind a lectern and rest their notes on its sloping surface. In looking for misuses of the words podium and lectern, I used variations of prepositional phrases beginning with behind and on. Note: It is possible to stand behind a podium. For example, athletes stand behind the podium until it is their turn to mount the podium and receive their awards. Standing on a lectern, on the other hand, would be a risky thing to do. Speakers usually stand at or behind a lectern. The following examples illustrate nonstandard uses of lectern and podium: Incorrect: Minutes later, he entered Room 5, stepped onto the lectern for the final time, and tried to summarize how it felt to be leaving a job and a school he felt blessed to have worked for. Correct: stepped behind the lectern Incorrect: Dr. Bryan used no electronic slides or projection system but simply  stood behind the podium and delivered  what was for me the most thought provoking lecture  of the week. Correct: stood behind the lectern or stood on the podium Incorrect: The lecturer stood high up behind a tall podium,  so you could just see the top  of his head. Correct: stood high up behind a tall lectern Incorrect: These people were obviously in full view  of Romney as he  stood  at the  podium  and spoke for more than an hour. Correct: as he stood on the podium Dictionaries notwithstanding, careful speakers will continue to observe the useful distinction between lectern and podium. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Avoid Beginning a Sentence with â€Å"With†5 Lessons for Mixing Past and Present Tense20 Criminal Terms You Should Know

10 Genius Tips for Balancing Test Prep With School

10 Genius Tips for Balancing Test Prep With School SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Getting your SAT/ACT dream score will likely take a considerable time investment. The vast majority of high school students have to spend many hours of studying before they're able to get their desired score. However, your time is limited. You have school, homework, studying, and extracurricular activities. How will you be able to put in the necessary test prep time on top of your other responsibilities? In this article, I'll let you know how you can balance SAT/ACT test prep with school. If you follow my advice, you'll be able to effectively incorporate test prep into your schedule. General Guidance Before you embark on a path to successfully reaching your SAT/ACT goals, you need to have the right mindset. First, you need to believe that you're capable of succeeding. Confidence is crucial to complete any difficult task, including getting a wonderful SAT/ACT score. Most likely, you're not where you want to be right now, but it's essential that you have faith that you can get there. As an SAT teacher, I worked with hundreds of students of all different skill levels, and almost every student who was committed to improving saw significant results. You may not be naturally gifted at math, but with enough practice and focused studying, you can probably get a good Math score. You may struggle with grammar, but if you master the grammar rules that are tested on the SAT/ACT, you should be able to correctly answer the grammar questions. Don't just accept that a weakness will stop you from getting your desired score. You need to believe that you can improve your weaknesses (because you can). Also, you need to be motivated. If you're confident but aren't willing to put in the necessary study time, you won't see much improvement. I understand that many students find it difficult to care about studying for the SAT/ACT. They find the material dull and have so many other priorities and concerns. However, regardless of your college goals, you should realize the importance of the SAT/ACT. Getting a better score will increase your college options and the likelihood that you'll qualify for merit scholarships. Furthermore, a good SAT/ACT score can positively impact your professional future. Some employers ask job applicants to report their standardized test scores. If you find your motivation waning, think of how getting a wonderful SAT/ACT score can benefit you. Finally, if you're going to successfully balance your SAT/ACT studying with school, you need to have a plan. To reach any challenging goal, I think it's important to specifically figure out how you're going to achieve your desired goal. Having a plan will enable you to stay on task and use your time efficiently. Making a Plan Hopefully, you recognize that you can balance school with your test prep, and you realize that you're going to need an effective plan to make that happen. How do you go about making a plan, though? I'll provide you with the steps and detailed instructions to help you come up with a quality SAT/ACT study plan. Determine Your Target Score Before you go through any steps to balance school with your test prep, you should have a goal score for your SAT/ACT. Having a goal will motivate you to stick to your study plan, make you more likely to prioritize your test prep, and help you figure out how much time you need to study. You can determine your target score by averaging the 75th percentile scores for the schools you’re interested in applying to. If you reach the 75th percentile score for a given school, your score will make you an extremely competitive applicant. Find the 75th percentile scores by googling â€Å"(name of school) prepscholar average sat† or â€Å"(name of school) prepscholar average act.† For old SAT scores out of 2400, multiply the 75th percentile score by â…” to determine what the 75th percentile score would be on the current test with a maximum score of 1600. Figure Out How Much Time You Need to Study Once you have a target score, you can determine how much time you need to study before you take the SAT/ACT. Taking this step will allow you to come up with a plan that will help you balance your test prep with school. In order to figure out how much you need to study, you need to know exactly how much you need to improve. Calculate the difference between your target score and your last SAT/ACT. If you've never taken the SAT/ACT, I recommend taking an official practice SAT/ACT simulating real testing conditions to determine where you’re at and how much you need to improve. Once you know how much you need to improve, here’s an estimated breakdown of point improvement per number of study hours for the SAT: 0-50 SAT Total Point Improvement: 10 hours 50-100 Point Improvement: 20 hours 100-200 Point Improvement: 40 hours 200-300 Point Improvement: 80 hours 300-500 Point Improvement: 150 hours+ And here’s the same thing for the ACT: 0-1 ACT Composite Point Improvement: 10 hours 1-2 ACT Point Improvement: 20 hours 2-4 ACT Point Improvement: 40 hours 4-6 ACT Point Improvement: 80 hours 6-9 ACT Point Improvement: 150 hours+ How many hours do you need to study? Write Out Your Weekly Schedule At this point, you should know when you’re planning on taking the test and how many total hours you need to study. Then you can divide the total number of hours you need to study by the number of weeks you have until your test to determine how many hours per week you should be studying. For example, let's say you're planning on taking the ACT in 8 weeks and you want to raise your ACT score by 3 points. Because a 3 point improvement will take roughly 40 hours of studying and you have 8 weeks until the test, you'll have to average about 5 hours of studying per week to reach your target score. Before you determine exactly when you’ll be studying, write out your weekly schedule with all of your responsibilities. Include all of your weekly tasks: school, homework, extracurriculars, job, etc. Write out your schedule for each day of the week. Perhaps your Tuesday may look something like this: 7:00 AM- wake up 8:00 AM-3:00 PM- school 4:00-6:00- cross country practice 7:30-9:30- homework and studying Create a Plan Now that you know how many hours per week you need to study, you can decide when you’re going to study based on the time that you currently have available. Write your intended study hours into your typed out weekly schedule. Print out your plan. You can even print out multiple copies and place them where you'll regularly see them. Looking at your intended schedule will remind you of when you need to study, help you commit your schedule to memory, and motivate you to stay on task. Let's add some study time into the hypothetical Tuesday schedule I made: 7:00 AM- wake up 8:00 AM-3:00 PM- school 4:00 PM-6:00 PM- cross country practice 7:30-9:30 PM- homework 10:00-:30 PM- SAT studying This is a pretty challenging schedule. You'll be busy with only limited breaks from 7:00 AM-:30 PM. However, if you're disciplined and motivated, it's feasible to stick to this itinerary. If you're more of a morning person, you can wake up at 5:30 AM to do your SAT studying. Also, if you have to do 5 hours of studying per week, you may only have to schedule SAT/ACT studying for a couple of days. Furthermore, if you have more free time on the weekends, you can save the majority or all your studying for Saturdays and Sundays. Time for test prep! Hooray! Make Your Plan Doable When you create your study plan, be realistic and honest with yourself about what you're capable of doing. If your schedule includes studying for 12 hours on both Saturday and Sunday, you probably should make some adjustments. Even though you may have enough free time to study for 12 hours on Saturday and Sunday, you’re probably not going to have the energy or concentration to study for 24 hours every weekend. Similarly, if you have trouble waking up in the morning, you shouldn't schedule your SAT/ACT prep for 4:00 AM. You really want to create a schedule that you’re likely to stick to and will allow you to put in enough prep time to reach your target score. Unfortunately, it's possible that if you don't have much free time, you'll have to create a schedule that's less than ideal. However, you still want to create the most realistic possible schedule. Share Your Plan For accountability, I recommend sharing your plan with those who are willing to help you stick to it. If your parents, siblings, or close friends know your intended schedule, they can encourage and push you when they know it’s time for you to do your SAT/ACT prep. If you try to deviate from your schedule, you’ll have other people to remind you of your goals and what you should be doing. Keep in mind, though, that you'll be most likely to achieve your goals if you're primarily self-motivated. Evaluate and Adjust Your Plan Regularly During the first week or two of your study plan, keep track of how well you’re doing and how well your plan is working for you. If the plan you created seems too difficult for you to maintain, then you may need to adjust it so that it’s easier for you. If you have to make adjustments, do your best not to sacrifice study time you need to reach your target score. Ideally, you'll be able to move your studying to times that work better for you. If your extracurricular activity or work schedule changes after you start your study plan, you may have to alter your prep time accordingly. Also, make sure that your SAT/ACT prep isn't getting in the way of your schoolwork. If your current prep plan is preventing you from finishing your homework or studying for school, then you'll have to make changes. You don't want to sacrifice your grades to reach your target score. In fact, generally, your grades are more important to colleges than your test scores. If your plan isn't working, change it. How to Stay Motivated Perhaps the biggest challenge to successfully balancing school with your test prep is maintaining your motivation up until test day. Many students are able to stick to their plan for a week or two, but they start to slip and neglect their test prep over time. Your study plan will only be effective if you stick to it up until test day. Trust me that I understand the challenges of maintaining your plan. I wasn't a perfect student, and I realize that you'll be tempted to stray from your plan when you'd rather be doing anything other than test prep. I've already mentioned a few tips like printing out your plan and sharing it to help stay on track. Here are some more strategies for you to make the best use of your study time and stay engaged throughout the study process. Set Smaller Goals for Motivation Remember that the number of hours you’re studying is only one part of the equation to reaching your target score. You need to make sure that you’re focused when you’re studying and studying efficiently. Set goals for yourself for each study session and on a weekly basis. For example, if during one of your study sessions, you’re trying to improve on transition questions on SAT Writing, you can set a goal of reviewing my article on transitions and then getting at least 9/10 transition questions right from SAT practice tests. Similarly, you could also set a goal for the week of raising your ACT Science score by two points from your last practice test. Then, you can focus your studying for the week on improving your content weaknesses and doing practice problems. At the end of the week, you can do a complete ACT Science section under test conditions, and hopefully, you’ll be able to achieve your goal. Leave Time for Fun In trying to balance school with your test prep, realize that outside of school, test prep, and your extracurricular activities, you should be having some fun and leisure time. All work and no play is sad, and you’re going to have a difficult time maintaining motivation if you’re not emotionally healthy. Furthermore, you should be enjoying your youth, spending time with your friends and family, and creating memories that you’ll probably look back on more fondly than your SAT/ACT prep. When you create your prep schedule, try not to have every minute of your day devoted to your studies or other obligations. It’s not terrible to spend a few hours per week engaged in fun activities that may not directly help you get into the college of your dreams. It might be time for a bouncy castle break. (Catrin Austin/Flickr) Reward Yourself Following all of the tips in this article (other than having fun) isn’t easy. Just reading this article is indicative of your determination and willingness to make sacrifices to achieve your goals. I’m a big believer in positive reinforcement. If you meet one of your daily or weekly goals, feel free to reward yourself for your hard work. You deserve it, and you can use your rewards as further motivation to reach your goals. If you reach your goal of improving your SAT Math section score by 50 points from the previous week, maybe you can reward yourself by going to see a movie you’ve been wanting to check out or spending an hour posting stories on Snapchat (isn’t that what the kids do these days?). Final Points Balancing school with your test prep isn’t easy, but it’s possible if you’re diligent, organized, and plan effectively. If you need help with motivation, organization, or holding yourself accountable, you may greatly benefit from a test prep program like PrepScholar. PrepScholar will help you identify your content weaknesses, inform you (and your parents) how much time you spend studying on a weekly basis, and it will organize your practice so that you’re able to reach your target score efficiently. What's Next? Are you getting ready for the SAT? Figure out the best way to study. Are you planning to take the ACT? Learn how to study. Are you plagued by test anxiety? Find out how to overcome test anxiety to get your target score. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

What is the Word Love Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

What is the Word Love - Essay Example Love is something that individuals know from the very beginning. A mother whispering to an unborn baby is one of the first signs of love that a human is shown. From the beginning of an individual’s life, it is likely that love is the first feeling they feel. In the very beginning God created man. Man was alone. Since man was alone God loved man and he created a woman (Genesis 2:16) this woman allowed man to feel love. Love is one of the first feelings since the beginning of creation. The love between a man and a woman are one of the greatest feelings of love. Love between a man and woman produce an intimate and sexual form of love. These forms of love are what allow men and woman to want to become married to one another. Marriage is one of the oldest symbols associated with loving one another. Intimate and sexual forms of love allow individuals to become attracted to one another. This attraction allows chemicals in the brain to release endorphins that make people feel good. Th is feeling of good is all possible because of love. The love a man and woman share can lead to having children and raising a loving family. Love is something that is taught to children and carried with them their whole life. When a child is shown love, the child loves others and teaches that love to their own children. LOVE IN ACTION Children that are shown love from the beginning are more likely to love others. Loving others can be shown. Because of this, love is so much more than just a word defined in the dictionary. Love is an action. Love as an action is amazing. There are so many ways to show love as an action. People show love everyday as an action. From infants to adults, people are able to show love. Babies show love by crying when someone they love walks away. The babies cry because they love that person and do not want to see them go. Children love in action when they hug someone else that they see hurt. They hug to show that they love. Teenagers show love as an action wh en they experience there first kiss. That first kiss is a sigh of love. An adult bringing home a bouquet of flowers is showing love as an action. Love in action is without a doubt amazing. Love can be shown by picking up the phone and calling an old friend. Love can be shown by hanging up a photo of someone who is missed. People perform these actions because of love. No other emotion would show such an experience. This is why love is an experience in itself. Although love is able to show actions that are pleasing, love can also show actions that may be tough and hurtful at times. A parent may discipline a child because of a tough form of love. Love as a tough action is important for all individuals. Being shown tough love can allow someone to learn and gain from the experience. When someone close does something that seems hurtful at the time, it is likely because they love. Doing things that may not seem right are necessary to prove a point. An individual would not bother proving th e point if it was not for love. Love can also cause intense and inappropriate actions of love.  Ã‚  

Organizational Structures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organizational Structures - Essay Example Adversarial communication can be solved by making flatter hierarchal structures so that communication channels don’t get distorted via the long hierarchy structures of the organisation. Competition for internal resources can be solved by managing by forming team structures within the employees so that a healthy competitive environment is maintained (Robbins and Judge 2007). The steps for managing the transition from the old organizational structure to the new would be a very challenging process. Handling employees and motivating them to accept the change in a positive manner has to be critically dealt by the manager. The employees need to be shown the positive side of the change in organizational structure so that they realize the advantages of this structure and hence except the change. In the transition stage of the change in organizational structure, there will be resistance faced from the employees in adapting the new structure and the new reporting lines of the hierarchy. Also if managers reduce the span of control under each division then also the work processes of the organisation can be controlled in an efficient manner (Robbins and Judge 2007). The change needs to be taken calmly by the manager and the manager needs to assure the employees that the change is being done for the betterment of the organisation. Kurt Lewin’s change theory needs to be applied that states the first stage is Unfreeze that is inform the employees about the change, then implement the change, and then finally refreeze the employees at that stage (Thompson and Strickland 2003). The external business environment may cause complications for the business at start as the business would be under the process of experiencing organizational structure change. Nevertheless, the manager needs to speed up the process, adapt in a fast manner to the external business conditions and delegate the appropriate authorities to the subordinates

Communication between Air Traffic Controllers and Pilots Essay

Communication between Air Traffic Controllers and Pilots - Essay Example The essay "Communication between Air Traffic Controllers and Pilots" talks about the skill needed to properly fly an aircraft, much less to properly land it. What looks so simple from a passenger's point of view is in fact much more difficult than it looks. It would thus be worth examining exactly how air transport works. The most common conception pertaining to the airport is that it is the structure through which airplanes are able to convey travelers and goods to their destination, though it would be more accurate to ascribe such a term to the personnel involved. These individuals are the ones who are responsible for making sure that air travel is as smooth and as safe as possible through the implementation of a myriad of complex processes and directives. There are a number of factors essential to the efficient management of the airport, such as flight profile, airlines, handling agents, customs, security, catering, ground transportation, passageways, and runways. The first of the se generally refers to standard operating procedures adhered to during the operation of an aircraft, namely pre-flight, take off, departure, en route, descent, approach, and landing. Pre-flight refers to the part up till the plane taxiing on the runway, during which the pilot submits his flight plan to whoever is in charge. The signal for takeoff is given following the approval of the flight plan, with aircraft taking off one after the other. This is done in order to ensure that one plane is well off the ground. by the time the other is taxiing up the runway8. Following takeoff is the departure phase, wherein the pilot activates the aircraft's transponder in order to both receive incoming signals and broadcast its own, providing its controller with the relevant information9. The subsequent en route phase then has the aircraft subject to careful monitoring by the departure controller, while descent, as the name implies, is when the aircraft is beginning to descend and approach its de stination10. Finally, the landing phase has the airplane touching down before taxiing to the gate and coming to a complete stop. The airport is also affected by the airlines who operate there and are responsible for the conveyance of passengers and goods11. Handling agents also come into play, especially when it comes to the

Interracial Marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Interracial Marriage - Essay Example Over time, interracial marriage has evoked a number of sentiments. There have been differences on how this issue has been viewed traditionally as well as contemporarily. Conventionally, men of color who marry women outside their race are seen as individuals who want to break free from their own identities. For instance, David Mura’s Reflections of My Daughter convey the emotion of self-hate in a man of color who chose to marry a white woman (O’Hearn). On the other hand, popular culture belief asserts that interracial marriage represents genuine acceptance and love. The following discussions look into the contrast of traditional and popular culture belief regarding men of color who choose to wed outside their race (Option A). In a traditional sense, men who opt to marry women from another race deny their innermost identities. This recourse is somehow seen as cowardly since it could be a way of escaping the prejudices and other disadvantages caused by one’s color. Most elderlies frown at this occurrence since it negates patriotism. One way of showing respect and love to your culture and nation is by marrying someone from where you are. They may also assert that one way of strengthening a race is by making it pure. For instance, Mura expounded on how he has experienced racism as a man of color. By marrying a white woman, he can somehow elevate his social status in the eyes of many. Since marrying someone from another race involves giving up some ideals and certain cultural practices, this action is viewed as rebuffing ones heritage. One may need to compromise one’s culture and identity especially when meeting in-laws. Mura also had some misgivings as well as guilt about his daughter’s future. Being a mixed-raced child, there can be certain social challenges regarding â€Å"fitting-in†. Mura had thoughts on merely educating his daughter regarding one racial background to diminish identity confusion. However, this may not se em right. Furthermore, it may not also be denied that many speculate that individuals marry outside their race in order to escape their impoverished situations. For instance, a local may perceive that marrying a â€Å"white† man or woman is a ticket out of a ghetto neighborhood or it can provide an opportunity for some to enjoy greener pastures in certain first world countries. Conventionally, marriage between two kinds of cultures often presents various complications. The dissimilarities transcend to moral, socio-psychological, and other facets of living. Some of the conflicts are on communication styles, household supervision, and religious practices. Language is an extremely valuable component of any race. Aside from the vocabularies, gestures and enunciations constitute self-expression. When there is a struggle in these aspects, misunderstandings are quite likely to happen. Moreover, household supervision is most of the time influenced by the couples’ respective fa mily values. The differences in each other’s principles may lead to disagreements. Also, raising children with two or even three or more kinds of cultures proves to be complicated and confusing. The challenge is not only for the parents but for the children as well. In addition, one’s beliefs and religious views are usually affected by the already-set practices in one’s childhood. Hence, an interracial marriage may face problems when it comes to the differences in convictions. On the contrary, current views assert that one engages in interracial marriage because of altruism and other noble reasons. Nowadays, the number of people engaging in interracial marriage have been increasing. The present acceptance of this practice is quite in contrast with traditional social guidelines. Though some are still ambivalent or unsupportive

Feasibility of hotel to implement changes in strategy Speech or Presentation

Feasibility of hotel to implement changes in strategy - Speech or Presentation Example A British scientist Charles Darwin wrote that survival does not belong to the strongest, but rather those that adapt more easily to change. For change in strategy to be implemented a feasibility study has to be taken. Change in strategy at hotel Penang Mutiara is visible due to these factors; The flexibility of the management is possible because this can be attested to the fact that the hotel can cope up with unexpected requests by customers this is evident from the fact that a hotel can have someone look for camembert cheese when asked by a guest since they don’t have it.This assures the guests of dependable services and satisfaction. (Gregory, G.,Lumpkin,G.&Marilyn,L04).The strategy of the hotel to cope with influx of guests is feasible because the hotel has already moved to a system of having multi-skilled works to cope up with the needs the hotel has proved this also by having them call stuff from other hotels and restaurants to the do the job.This is the flexibility that is needed for the management to work effectively and efficiently. This proves that the hotel can have a better system which is more effective by having a on and off system of hiring labour and retraining the current workers to be multi-skilled or rehiring multi-skilled workers.Changes to make sure Quality of services are there is necessary to be in place; in the case for this hotel the guest can lose their luggage on transit to the hotel.

Deductive Reasoning and Inductive Reasoning Essay

Deductive Reasoning and Inductive Reasoning - Essay Example It also accused a senior church official of knowingly endangering thousands of children by shielding accused priests for years. The Philadelphia district attorney brought sexual-assault charges against the priests and teacher, and charged Msgr. William Lynn, with two counts of child endangerment, apparently the first time a church leader has been criminally charged with covering up abuse. Monsignor Lynn was secretary of the clergy under retired Cardinal Anthony Bevilacqua, responsible for investigating abuse allegations from 1992 to 2004. Instead, according to the grand jury, he shuffled credibly accused priests among unsuspecting parishes, putting â€Å"literally thousands of children at risk of sexual abuse.† (5)The report said at least three dozen accused priests remain in active ministry in the archdiocese, nearly all unidentified. (6)The grand jury asked the archdiocese for its records on the accusations against those priests; months later, (7) the archdiocese has not ful ly complied. (8)These are not the first accusations against the Philadelphia Archdiocese. A blistering grand-jury report in 2005 exposed the abuse of hundreds of children by more than 60 archdiocesan priests, lamenting that the church’s cover-up had succeeded since the statute of limitations made it impossible to prosecute the predators.

Feasibility of hotel to implement changes in strategy Speech or Presentation

Feasibility of hotel to implement changes in strategy - Speech or Presentation Example A British scientist Charles Darwin wrote that survival does not belong to the strongest, but rather those that adapt more easily to change. For change in strategy to be implemented a feasibility study has to be taken. Change in strategy at hotel Penang Mutiara is visible due to these factors; The flexibility of the management is possible because this can be attested to the fact that the hotel can cope up with unexpected requests by customers this is evident from the fact that a hotel can have someone look for camembert cheese when asked by a guest since they don’t have it.This assures the guests of dependable services and satisfaction. (Gregory, G.,Lumpkin,G.&Marilyn,L04).The strategy of the hotel to cope with influx of guests is feasible because the hotel has already moved to a system of having multi-skilled works to cope up with the needs the hotel has proved this also by having them call stuff from other hotels and restaurants to the do the job.This is the flexibility that is needed for the management to work effectively and efficiently. This proves that the hotel can have a better system which is more effective by having a on and off system of hiring labour and retraining the current workers to be multi-skilled or rehiring multi-skilled workers.Changes to make sure Quality of services are there is necessary to be in place; in the case for this hotel the guest can lose their luggage on transit to the hotel.

Employees-Management Coflicts at British Airways Essay

Employees-Management Coflicts at British Airways - Essay Example References 23 1. Executive Summary British Airways is air carrier Hospitality Company which operates in United Kingdom with its head quarter in London. Recently there observed a conflict between employees and the management which was afterwards resolved after significant losses. The purpose of this study is to dig out the root causes for what the problem arouse and the deviation between proposed solution and the most appropriate solution in order to resolve the matter with least damages. The study is purely descriptive and qualitative which uses case study research design to find out the deduction (Cooper 2007). As it has to interact with human behaviors then it is socially collaborative research hence it is specified as deductive research. The real time scenario will be implicated over the literary theories and practices to deduce the most appropriate results (Sekaran 2003). The cabin crew employees had a problem with the management policies related to their rights and incentives is sues (BBC News). They went on a shutdown to get their demands fulfilled. The dispute ran for a longer time period of two years and the main agenda presented by the employees union was pay and benefits. It remained an acrimonious one for the taste of the top management. It caused twenty two days of crew cabin staff strike. Human resource department was not able to handle the situation (BBC UK). The problem was tackled at last; the guilt was on both parties. The demands were unjust and the management was getting failed in digging out some perfect situation handler. 2. Introduction The proposed study anticipates digging out the recent conflict issues which were observed at British Airways among management and the employees (hubpages). The conflicts were sought to be resolved in order to get the operations straight forward as well as on the stream of action. The research methodology which is used to get the insights from the matter is secondary data approach using deductive research des ign. The conclusion is generalized as the matter was not only dependent upon the management. There were many of the contemporary issues which were over sought by the stakeholders. The study is a spot light, basically, and the primary purpose is to find out the relationship between conflict handling capabilities and the employees’ union authority at British Airways. Since British Airways is a well-known traveling company operating in United Kingdom, having the head quarter at London, UK. It is the biggest carrier company in United Company whereas it is placed at 3rd number all over the Europe. The company stands at 1st in airlines ranking all over the world having 51000 employees. The passenger turnover which is recorded on the booking basis is 36 million per annum. It has a lot of strengths over its contemporaries. Threats which were observed over the history of British Airways were short termed and management resolved the issues in a managed and systematic manner. Over the p eriod of Human Resource era, the beginning was a little bit shaky for hospitality industry. Because before the arrival of HR era, customer was considered as a king and there were lesser rights given to the employees. When human resources were realized with their value, conflicts arouse in all over the hospitality industry along with British Airways. In the paper, there is discussed in detail about how the management faced the problems and how was the issue resolved along with better implementation of the case in to the real corporate world with

Foundations of psychology Essay Example for Free

Foundations of psychology Essay (a) Conceptually, reasoning is characterized by various attitudes, emotions, feelings or even assumptions. These are the psychological factors that occur psychologically as parameters that help to develop a logical conclusion in ones reasoning. Rationality in reasoning is what yields a final resolution. However, such reasoning is brought to a state of imbalance in which the different assumptions, feelings and attitudes tend to shape the outcome responses. Perhaps however, each of the attributes could be controlled by aspects of various stimuli that respond to the three stage of classical conditioning. Initially, an aspect of anxiety of wanting to create some reflective thinking occurs. This is because of the desire to come to a logical conclusion of the problem held in the reasoning. The unconditioned stimulus before the reasoning was to arrive at a phenomenon based on the results of the reasoning. The driving force then throws an imbalance in the cognitive state of the brain senses with a basic aim of arriving towards an imperative solution based on the foundations of the question in the reasoning. A state of confusion occurs basically due to inability of making the correct choice of solutions. The solution should be independent of the external environment. Additionally, the choices to the solution also consider that reasoning may have various solutions. However, a conflict exists between the set of decisions alternatives due to the inability of making the most rational decision instantly. However, the principles of classical conditioning help to develop various stimuli corresponding to the various decision alternatives. Each stimulus (like a defensive censor) evokes one another to finally reach at an equilibrium consensus which the cognitive personality chooses as the best decision variable (Anne, 1999) A state of ambivalence follows the above stage of confusion. Ambivalence develops from the emotional perceptions and seeks to give a feeling of no specific inclination in any of the decision alternatives persuaded in the reasoning process. This is however a defense mechanism since it denies the strong efforts of strong feelings in the decision alternatives thus lessening the probable pain which one would have encountered in decision making (Michael, 1977) (b) Role of memory in reasoning The human memory is an important element in cognitive reasoning. Memory is what aligns the different aspects involved in reasoning to yield a correspondence between one another. The attitudes, feelings and assumptions ought to be construed in a dimension that brings reflective ties to one another. Memory can be said as the pivot entry between the functional relationships in all elements that define reasoning. The fundamental scope of reasoning is comprised of various complimentary processes that depend on one another. The philosophical and psychological standpoints have pinpointed on memory and reasoning as working in an integrated system and none can replace one another. Memory acts as an object that brings a tie and conjoins the various independent processes that are involved in the process of reasoning. It is also the object that provides subjective interactions and explorations among the wide scope of the cognitive processes to arrive at a balance of interest which is the defining choice/decision variable of the reasoning process (Thomson, 2001) Conceptually, the association that exists in human reasoning is brought about by the organization and content interaction of the human memory. It helps to bring about a scope of interpretation about the various processes that are involved in the human cognition. Consequently, memory is influential as a trajectory object for the integration of the various processes in the reasoning processes that finally strikes a balance in the choice of decision to follow. (c) Obstacles in reasoning There are various obstacles that could hinder the process of effective reasoning. These include; Mental entrenchment: This is a situation that occurs when the mind is framed in models that represent various problems, problem contexts or perhaps the possible procedures for use in solving a particular problem. When a person involved in reasoning has entrenched mind sets, they may develop methods that creates a solution to the problem in question but which does not provide the most optimal and effective solutions to such problems (Mark, 2007) Either, functional fixedness is an obstacle in effective thinking/reasoning. This case arises when an individual who has an ability of doing specific things extends such methods in creating the decisions in reasoning. He is unable to develop methodologies that addresses a certain problem in question but rather has to refer to what models his/her mind (Mark, 2007) Stereotypes: Stereotypes are those fundamental generalizations that are unsupported by rationality held by the members within a certain setting or the contemporary society. Stereotypes could be learned during childhood. Individuals accustomed to various senses of stereotypical thinking always make generalized choice and decisions in their reasoning process. Negative transfers: This is the condition when the procedures that are to be used in solving a current problem occurs in the future as harder problems that are perhaps unsolvable. This is a contrast of positive transfer that implies the former process for solving gone problems make the current problem easy to solve. These obstacles are highly involved in obstructing the critique of critical and effective thinking by bringing the wrong illusions and impressions in the reasoning process. (d) Types of reasoning involved in the experience Generally, there are various reasoning involved in an experience. Each differs in terms of flow of precepts and hypothetical developments. The process of reasoning within the given set of experience is important in giving the rationality behind the choice of one decision at the expense of the others. However, various types of reasoning are used in the reasoning process. These include; Abduction: This is the process through which a hypothesis statement about an experience is made. It seeks to formulate the fundamental scope of levels with which such a problem/experience occurs and the possible influential factors behind it. The cause and the effect reasoning: This is the mode of reasoning which seeks to relate the starting point of an experience or a problem of interest. It involves establishing the causes and effects and then trying to relate how each affects one another or how each is related to the other. (Manktelow, 1999) Comparative reasoning: This is the reasoning precept that seeks to draw a comparative analogy by comparing and relating one thing with the corresponding alternative. It then seeks to strike a balance of stability between such relationships. Deductive reasoning: It is the reasoning that involves establishing the generalized parameters and then moving towards a drive in the specific rules. Inductive reasoning: This is that which involves establishing the specific parameters and then driving towards the generalized rules. (e) Methods of enhancing effective reasoning in this experience. Critical thinking is that which goes beyond logical reasoning. It is that which works towards scrutinizing arguments by support of empirical evidence. Enhancing reasoning is a combination of various tools that promote the cognitive precepts of the human brain. These include; Physical exercise: Physical exercise is highly supportive in the functionality of the brain. A functional brain is a brain that has the cognitive power of critical and effective reasoning. Taking physical exercise helps to refresh the nervous system whose central context is the brain faculty (Robert, 1991) Taking adequate sleep: It is of necessity that a person takes enough sleep that brings relaxation to the reasoning and thinking autonomies. The mind set that could be infiltrated by sleep and stress is prone to inadequate reasoning. Various decisions by the human reasoning can only be ploughed in by a sober and a relaxed cognitive personality. Neurofeedback process: This is the process through which the precepts of human reasoning are controlled by reflecting back to what presumes a certain reasoning obligation. It is the sensational process of developing a raw feedback to the mind that causes fatal relaxation before engaging into fresh models of reasoning (Anne, 1999) Avoiding reasoning distracters: This is achieved through adequate payment of attention. Though a complex pattern involved in the brain function, it can be ensured by the proper payment of attention to the reasoning process that would then help to withdraw all possible abstractions and therefore driving towards concrete decisions. Reference Anne, T (1999) Critical Reasoning in Ethics. London, Routledge Manktelow, K (1999) Reasoning and Thinking. London. Psychology Press Mark, R (2007) The Psychology of Reasoning, London, Routeldge. Michael, S (1977) Reasoning. New York, McGraw Hill Robert, A (1991) Practical Reasoning. London, Routledge Thomson, A (2001) Critical Reasoning: A Practical Introduction. London, Routlege

Biogeography Essay Questions

Biogeography Essay Questions 8 Biogeography Essay Questions 1.) What is the science of biogeography? Biogeography is that study of geographical distribution of flora and fauna considering the different taxonomic levels, present and past, the habitats in which they are found together with the involved ecological relationships. Today, there are two theories in biogeography that have been developed to discuss more on the distribution of biological species in the world. The two of them are Distance-decay and Island biogeography theories. The distance-decay theory asserts that the correlation and similarity between species in any two geographical locations will continue decreasing as the distance between the two increases. The second biogeographical theory, island biogeography asserts that those pockets of life (islands) that are closely spaced will support more biological life/species. It is still this second theory that explains that these closely spaced islands are rarely threatened by extinction if compared to the tiny isolated islands of the world. The Geographic Information Systems Scientists say that the above two theories were developed in order for us to be able to fully understand the distribution of species but not the distribution or even movement of human beings. As it was developed, the science of biogeography was meant to answer so many questions that are varied. It was developed so that it can answer some of the questions like why are there so many kinds of animals and plants in the world. It seeks to answer why some of these animals and plants are rare while others are common. Some animals and plants are widely dispersed while others are confined to a limited place. The science of biogeography seeks to explain the reason as to why this is so. There are some parts of this world that are richer in terms of species compared to others. Its only by use of the study of biogeography that we can be in a position to understand this. There are several major types of biogeography distributions. They include; Endemic (restricted to specific locations), cosmopolitan (e.g.Caenorhabdities elegans and Drosophila melanogaster), and Disjunct (separated). The disjunct biogeographic distributions are believed to have been caused by Vicariance and dispersal. In biogeography, evidence that can be based on its history can be classified in terms of Paleontology and systematics. 1.) Describe the 5 observations upon which the science of biogeography is founded. Give TWO examples for each observation. a) Each and every species and other higher group animals are said to have a discrete and a non random distribution in time and space. A good example of this is the gorilla that is only found in two African forests. b) In different geographical regions of the world there is an assemblage of animals that are distinct and they coexist. A good example to explain this is the fauna that is found south of the desert of Sahara together with its monkeys, antelopes, pigs and this is totally different from the Australian fauna and its duck billed platypus, wombats and kangaroos. c) The differences and the similarities in these regions cannot be in any way be described in terms of the distance between them or even the area of origin. A good example is that the fauna of eastern Asia and Europe is to large extent similar although they are both separated by 11,500km of land. Also the fauna of New Guinea and Borneo are different though are separated by a small piece of land compared to the ones abov e which is across water and land. d) All those faunas that look different from those of today once previously occurred in all other geographical regions. An example is the dinosaurs which existed in most parts of the geographic locations in Cretaceous. e) The faunas which resemble the ones found today and their antecedents once occurred, but its sometimes at far distances from the current range. A good example is the subtropical-warm temperature fauna which is found in Eocene Wyoming. This includes fishes which are fresh-water, turtle groups and salamander which are restricted to southeastern parts of the United States. 1.) Discuss this statement: â€Å"The history of biogeography is essentially a continuing conflict between creation myth and empirical science.† Empirical science describes that the distribution of organisms in the whole world was as a result of continuous evolution of the past existing species. Science asserts that the present fauna and flora are as a result of evolution from past organisms which were not developed as they are today. On the other side of the creation myth, people and especially the Christians believe that the current population of plants and animals are a product of what God created long time ago. Some of the things that are explained in the bible are in total conflict with what science has provided a detailed account on. A good example is the Global Flood during the time of Noah. The Bible says that God instructed Noah who by then was 600 years old to construct an ark. Noah was then supposed to take two of every unclean animal and seven of every clean animal. All food and fresh water was then supposed to be in the ark. Noah and his family were to remain in the ark for six months until the flood waters subsi ded. This creation story in the book of genesis continues to explain that after the flood waters subsided, Noah, his family and the animals that were released then were the ones who later repopulated the earth. This is in total conflict with the empirical scientists who argue that today there is too much of genetic diversity in the world for us to be consistent that every animal that is land based descended from the few breeding pairs and this is just some few thousands years ago. According to empirical science, some of the species we have today in the planet will evolve locally. This thus means that they are immobile geographically according to scientists. The scientists will ask today how comes the Duckbill platypus ended up only in Australia and not anywhere else in the planet. Scientists still argue that Noah did not take any fish or coral in the ark. During the flood thus, all the fish would have become extinct and all the corals would have been swept away. Some of the corals according to the scientists even appear older than the given history of the floods. For scientists they believe that there is no way the short lived species could have survived the time they were in the ark. They say that the adult mayflies would have died in just a few days while the larvae of many mayflies will require shallow fresh and running water. Other similar insects and many of them would actually face the same problems. There is no way the scientists would believe that the human population could rebound in such a short period. Other controversies apart from the field of evolutionary biology can also be seen in cosmology, thermodynamics, paleontology, geology and nuclear physics. 1.) Describe the main contributions to biogeography of the people listed below. Alexander von Humbolt, Liebig, MacArthur and William. Alexander Von Humbolt: He was German naturalist who is normally referred to as the father of phytogeography. He was the one who felt that study on geographical distribution was an important scientific inquiry that could lead to the discovery of laws of nature that are fundamental. He was the one who did the explorations of South and Central America together with Aime Bonpland who was a French naturalist. These two travelled along the Orinoco and Amazon rivers as they explored the Andes and the present day parts of Ecuador, Venezuela and Colombia. He managed to study vegetation and climatic conditions of Urals Mountains, Siberia and Caspian Sea. He was the one who invented the isobar and isotherm which are used today in description of climatic associations of plant communities. He had a passion for the beauty of nature. He had a good description of the physical environment together with the plant distribution that are widely used in biogeography. Liebig: He was born in Darmstadt, Germany. He went to Paris where was working in the laboratory of Joseph Gay-Lussac. His main interest was in chemistry. He did much in order to establish chemistry as a discipline. He started the first chemical periodical for scholars. He was the one who showed that studies like physiology, agriculture, and psychology are only intelligible if based on sound chemical principles. He was one of the contributors in discovery of isomerism (a condition where two different compounds may have the same chemical formula). He showed that organic compounds can actually be dealt with in a rational way. He once rejected the current humus theory. He showed his contrasting idea by describing that some plants will leave the soil richer in terms of carbon that they really found it. He visited England once and was not happy with the way they were setting out their sewage to the sea. He was of the opinion that they should use their sewage as a fertilizer. William: He collected vertebrates in many remote regions of Hispaniola between the years 1916 and 1923. He also did collections in other regions of the world like the famous Himalayas. To date, most his collections are still in Smithsonian. He is landscape ecologist and a biogeographer. He has made tremendous contributions in the understanding of landscapes and disturbances. His research in these fields has made tremendous influence on the field of biogeography and also the academic biogeographers. MacArthur: He came up with the MacArthur and Wilson equilibrium model on insular biogeography. This is a model that is used to provide a good foundation on the distribution of species on islands. Its also useful in explanation of the composition of insular biotas. Its because of his model that many analyses have been made on the distributions of mammals on insular habitats. 5) Describe the relationships among the following physical factors:pressure, physiography, ocean currents, latitude, temperature, light, precipitation, and wind Physiography is a description of the features and even phenomena of nature. Most of the physical features of the world cannot be well described unless we use other factors like temperature. Physiography stands for physical geography. What is in physical geography is all the physical features like the mountains, forests/vegetations among others. When we attempt to describer any climatic condition of a place or of a certain region, we use temperature, the level of rainfall/precipitation and the effects that winds may have on it. It therefore translates that we cannot describe most of the physical phenomena without using the other factors mentioned. They interdepend on each other for description of physical phenomena. Ocean currents depend on pressure. They usually move from where the pressure is low to where its high. Wind is said to be air in motion. Air can only be in mo0tion if one region has a high pressure compared to another. Air moves from high pressure centers to low pressure centers. This is wind. It therefore means that wind can only be thee if there is difference in pressure amounts in two regions. Ocean currents are usually associated with the precipitation. They usually make the nearby areas in the ocean to receive rainfall if they are usually accompanied by high temperatures. Areas of low latitude have high temperatures while high latitude areas are generally cool. Light intensity in certain ecosystems helps the growth of specific organisms. Physiography/physical geography cannot be fully described if light intensity is not going to be applied to describe some of the conditions in some places (physical phenomena). 1.) Give the Holdridge Bioclimate Classification of climate for the following places: Honolulu, Hawaii; Adelaide, Australia; Timbuktu, Mali; La Paz, Bolivia. Timbuktu (Mali) Class 35; according to Holdridge bioclimatic classification it is in a tropical dry forest. The climate is characterized by high temperatures all year. There is however a better developed dry season compared to the tropical rain forest. The soils are just like for the tropical rain forest. Most of the evergreen tree species become deciduous. Tree canopy is lower compared to tropical rain forest. Undergrowth is dense. There is lower species diversity. Trees have thicker back and small leaves. Roots are long and trees have thorns also. Larger mammals are more dominant Honolulu (Hawaii) Class 25; subtropical desert scrub with an annual climate of 24 degrees. Average temperature in a day is 29 degrees and the minimum is 21 degrees. Its humidity is moderated by its mid-ocean positioning. There is intense rainfall in the winter months though most of the winter days have warm bright sunshine. Rarely will temperatures go beyond 32 degrees. Adelaide (Australia) Class 30; subtropical rain forest Generally, rainfall is more than 1300mm. there are fertile eutrophic rocks. A multi layered canopy of between 10 and 60 species of trees. Most of these trees will exhibit buttressing w2hich is a feature that is common in rain forest areas. La Paz (Bolivia) Class 27; subtropical dry forest 2.) Define endemism. Give and explain five characteristics associated/correlated with areas of endemism. This is a situation where a plant or an animal taxon is said to be restricted in a geographical range or a particular region. Since the times of Darwin, it has been known that islands are the ones which are mostly rich in endemic species. Endemism will arise because of several mechanisms. The major one is the geographical isolation. In this geographic isolation, a small population that has a limited genetic diversity may be isolated. After several generations, the drift in genetics will lead to formation of a distinct species. A population that may arrive on a new island may fill different ecological niches. Other generations of natural selection may result in formation of distinct species. Again, a certain species that was widespread may suffer extinction. This island may now become a â€Å"refugia†. This describes the origin of the major species of Macaronesian endemic â€Å"laurels†. These are mostly found in the Mediterranean region. Latitude: species richness of most organisms in an endemic region increases form high temperature to low tropical latitudes. Lower latitudes have high levels of endemism. Species richness: The levels of species richness and those of endemism cannot be said to be infrequently correlated. Oceanic islands have high levels of endemism but will have low numbers of species. Unusual environmental conditions: Most endemic areas are known to have environmental conditions that are very different from other areas. There occurs independent evolution of the local adaptations. These will mostly enable the species to persist under the existing conditions. Isolation: Almost all areas of endemism are separated or isolated from others geographically. There are barriers to other areas such that even independent evolution is going to give rise to endemic taxa. Historical: In these areas there are usually changing abiotic and biotic environmental conditions. High levels of endemism may be associated with areas that have long-term ecoclimatic stability. This can even enable these populations to be able to survive global changes in climate conditions. 1.) Describe the three possible tectonic plate boundaries, give an example of each and explain the possible consequences of a convergent boundary. Divergent boundary: Its the soft boundary and its also called the spreading center. Two plates move away from each other and mid-ocean ridges will be formed. Magma from the mantle will move though a crack to the ocean and it then cols. This cooling causes the formation of oceanic crust on both sides of the vent. When the plates continue to move, more crust will be formed. The ocean basin then expands forming a ridge system. This crust formed causes the pushing of the plates on either side further. A good example of this kind of plate boundary is that of North America and Europe. Convergent boundary: Its also called a subduction zone. This is a plate margin where one plate will override the other. This forces the other into beneath its mantle. They are boundaries which are in the form of trench. Old oceanic crust will go into these systems as there is new crust formed when the centers are spreading. They are usually locations of strong earthquakes as the action of the plate that is going down interacts with the overriding one. It can also be as a result of volcanic activity. A good place to be associated with it is Japan. The plate that is going down the other will continue to become even hotter. This is because of its proximity to the mantle. The plate will thus melt to form magma. This magma will move upwards through the crust and volcanoes are formed. A good example is the Aleutian Islands. Conservative/transform boundary: Its called conservative as there is neither creation nor destruction of plate materials at the boundaries. What usually happens here is that the plates will slide past each other. These are usually areas where there are many earthquakes. They are caused by the accumulation and release of strain when the plates slide past each other. Good examples of conservative boundaries are the San Andreas Fault in California and mid-ocean ridges, the Rockies in North America. Possible consequences of convergent boundary: These are areas that are earthquake prone. These earthquakes can cause a lot of deaths to human beings and animals. A good example is the 1883 eruption of Krakatau volcano of Indonesia that killed more than 37,000 people. The hot magma contains some chemical that may be harmful to the human beings and also the existing vegetation. Where these big mountains are formed after the plate boundary formation, climatic conditions may change which may not be conducive to the existing flora and fauna.

Spending Power of Children Essay -- Marketing

In present day to day life, kids play a vital role in the purchase behaviour of the family. This paper focuses on the effects of retail communication on the purchase decision of children. The various factors which influence child’s behaviour have been studied. The methodology adopted includes thorough observation of a kid from entry to exit in the store followed by a personal interview of the accompanying person. Further, the kid’s interaction with the accompanying person has been studied and his/her evaluation of the request is noted. After analysing the complete behaviour, a framework has been proposed which depicts the complete process and the various factors which influences child’s behaviour in the store. Introduction Nowadays children’s share in the family expenditure occupies a significant place. It is also believed that this share is spent by the elders to buy necessary things for the children but now the scenario is changing. The children have the major say in deciding what things they want and what they don’t. According to one of the researcher, spending power of children or young consumers is expected to be over  £200m in the UK alone (Nicole Weiner, 2004). So now it can be estimated that how much it would have been risen over the last 7 years. Markets are also influenced by this kind of behaviour and mould themselves accordingly. We can see a large variety of child centric things in the markets, which are making huge profits despite being not much of necessity. This study is done to find out the various factors involved that influence a kid’s behaviour at a retail store and the percentage of accompanying persons that yield to the various types of influence attempts made by the kids at the store. Litera... ... ‘crying’, and ‘hitting’ contributes (33.33%), (50%)& (16.67%) respectively. For those who made simple purchasing attempts, ‘simple requesting for the product’ was their first preference with (86.67%) & ‘pointing towards the product’ was the second with 53.33% and the rest like ‘grabbing it from the shelf’ and ‘naming a product’ were at the back with 40%, 33.33% respectively. Accompanying person initiated demands are defined as those in which the accompanying persons willingly offer the product to their child. This includes voluntarily asking about child’s product preference, suggesting a certain product, inviting them for the product selection. In this ‘voluntarily asking about their product preference’, ‘suggesting a certain product’, ‘inviting them for the product selection’ contributes 44.44%, 55.55% and 44.44% respectively towards the AP initiated dema nd.

“Dead Poets Society” essay Essay

What ideas about discovery are conveyed by Peter Weir’s ‘Dead Poets Society’ and one other text? The process of discovery has the ability to greatly impact an individual resulting in them having new ideas and perceptions on themselves and others. These ideas differ for all individuals as each has their own experiences and develops from them in unique and personal ways. This is clearly evident in the film ‘Dead Poets Society’ by Peter Weir as it is a text which significantly focuses on the concept of contrast. Throughout this concept viewers are allowed an in-depth demonstration of the protagonists Neil Perry and Todd Anderson’s negative and positive experiences which have been caused by their strive to achieve individualism after a new English teacher John Keating introduces his pupils to poetry and free thinking attitude. ‘Firework’ a song co-written and performed by Katy Perry is also a text which conveys that discovery is a proc ess that can lead to enlightenment and enable one to be more acceptant of who they once they disregard the socially constructed expectations that mass media communicates. Throughout Perter Weir’s ‘Dead Poets Society’ viewers are able to understand that discovery itself is a process of transformation that can lead to new ideas which in turn have positive effects on an individual. This can be seen in the scene where Professor Keating educates his students the act of conformity. When Keating states its definition as â€Å"the difficulty of maintaining your own beliefs in the face of others† the audience are able to identify the contrast between the professor Keating and principal Nolan’s attitudes and values towards educations throughout the mise-en-scene displaying Nolan in a small, dark and mysterious room caged by the large steel poles representing the strict and prestigious nature of the institution. This allows the audience to realise that the students are able to better develop their skills when allowed to be free from the forces of conformity the institution brings. When the students are told to find their â€Å" own walk† it clear that they do so to achieve becoming their own unique individual. Furthermore, during the ending of the film a full shot is utilised to capture the majority of students standing on their tables portraying the extent to which professor Keating has made an impact on his pupils. Earlier in the film Keating too stood on his table to â€Å"remind himself to look at things in a different way† hence it can be said that his student are following in his footsteps allowing the professor to depart from  the academy without any regret. Even though discovery may lead to new understandings and perceptions these may not result in positive ways but will also have the ability to result in negative outcomes for both individual and those closes by .As a result of Keating’s newly introduced philosophies, protagonist Neil Perry further endeavours to fulfil his passion and desire to become an actor however does so by forging his father’s signature on a consent form that would allow him to perform his act. When Neil’s father objects to him p ursuing his dreams, he is told that he will â€Å"go to Harvard and become a doctor†. Through the use of the low camera angle looking up towards his father, strong facial expression displaying authority and superiority are apparent. As a result viewers are able to comprehend that Neil is in no position to change or even slightly alter his father’s decision. However, when Neil’s mother advises that he â€Å"get some sleep† a close up of the individuals face presents a mysterious and worrisome smile resulting in the creation of suspense and confusion in the audience. The mise-en-scene displaying a weak and still hand behind a table centimetres away from a gun, viewers are able to reach the tragic conclusion of Neil Perry’s death in a confronting and unexpected way. ‘Firework’ a song co-written and performed by Katy Perry is a text which significantly exemplifies the experience of discovering something that has been concealed by of society and in particular the expectations that are constantly forced upon individuals through mass media that must be disregarded to proceed to the new finding. The music video features a number of characters overcoming numerous social issues such as body image, homosexuality, bullying, the effect of conflict between parents on their children and the acceptance of having a medical illness. Throughout the chorus the term â€Å"firework† is used to symbolise the spark inside all individuals that must first be â€Å"ignited† or in other words believed in to enable them to achieve their goals and accomplish their dreams. Additionally, fireworks are used as visual metaphors to represent the time when one becomes enlightened and acceptant of who they truly are regardless of what society expects of them. In conclusion, both texts ‘Dead Poets Society’ by Peter Weir and ‘Firework’ by Katy Perry complement each other in the sense that they both successfully provide the audience with diverse concepts and ideas of discovery. Whether they may be negative or positive,  each educates viewers in having varying ideas about the consequences that may be caused by ones decision after they access new, original understandings and perceptions of themselves.

Advertising- the seven sins of memory Essay

INTRODUCTION As if effective marketing communication were not hard enough to achieve, even if we succeed in getting our message attended to and processed, and a positive intention formed, the very nature of memory may step in and upset everything. Memory distortion and plain old forgetting are unfortunate facts of life. The important question, however, is: can we do anything about it? As with most things, if we are to have any hope of dealing with memory problems and their impact upon advertising and other marketing communications, we must first understand what is going on. In this paper we will be looking at what Daniel Schacter (2001) has called ‘the seven sins of memory’: transcience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias and persistence. Most of what Schacter is dealing with involves declarative memory and not procedural memory, and as a result is highly dependent upon activity in the hippocampus. Although other brain structures are involved in mediati ng declarative memory, the hippocampus is critical, especially for tasks emphasising the representational as opposed to temporal properties of declarative memory. The hippocampus is always active in encoding new information for declarative memory. Nondeclarative emotional memory is also involved here, especially in the cases of bias and persistence, which means activity in the amygdala as well. There is compelling evidence that the amygdala is critical to emotional learning and memory (cf. Griffiths 1997). Imperfections in memory have obvious implications for the successful processing of advertising. Even if a positive intention is formed as a result of exposure to an advert, if a memory malfunction interferes with that intention, the advertising will be ineffective. The problems associated with these ‘seven sins of memory’, and what advertisers can do about it, are discussed below. THE SIN OF TRANSIENCE Forgetting that naturally occurs over time may be thought of as transcience. While the memory of what one did yesterday may be all but perfect, over time those memories tend to become more a generic description of what one expects to happen under those circumstances rather than what actually did happen. †¢Advertising implication: The sin of transience implies that what people ‘recall’ from advertising is much more likely to reflect a generic description of what is expected about a brand rather than the specific benefits that are part of the message. This has clear implications for interpreting recall measures of advertising messages. But, more importantly, it also suggests that the specific content of marketing communication should be consistent with, or carefully integrated with, prior understandings of the brand. A recent advert for Reynolds Wrap illustrates this can be done with a headline ‘Sticky Foods Won’t Stic’ spelled out in cheese on a pan of lasagne, with a portion cut out of the corner cutting off the last letter of ‘stick’, revealing the aluminium foil, clean, beneath. Transcience increases with age. While older adults those over 50 years of age have the same ability to remember in the short term as younger people, over time, memory of specific detail deteriorates more rapidly. As a result, older adults tend to rely upon a general sense of ‘knowing’ rather than specific recall. The problem of memory transience can be mediated by more elaborative encoding, essentially by stimulating the lower left frontal cortex. One popular way of trying to encourage more elaborate encoding is by using visual imagery mnemonics to facilitate memory. In fact, this idea goes back to the early Greeks. Unfortunately for marketing communication, not only does using visual mnemonics require a great deal of concentration and effort (and there is no easy way to encourage such effort), but for most people there is really very little evidence of general memory improvement using such techniques. †¢Advertising implication: However, one way to encourage more elaborative encoding to help reduce transcience is to relate information the target audience is interested in remembering with something they already know. In advertising, this could be encouraged with questions in the copy to stimulate elaboration: for example, in a recent advert for the Dodge Caravan with the headline ‘What Idiot Coined the Phrase ‘Stay at Home Mom’?’ THE SIN OF ABSENT-MINDEDNESS When one fails to pay proper attention to something and as a result does not encode it properly, or when the information is actually in memory, but overlooked when needed to be retrieved, one experiences the sin of absent-mindedness. Absent-mindedness manifests itself both in failing to  remember past experiences as well as in failing to remember to do something in the future. Both, of course, can prove troublesome for marketing communication. Also, the fact that absentmindedness is more likely for routine experiences that do not in and of themselves require elaborative encoding (e.g. exposure to advertising) adds to the problem. Unfortunately, routine behaviour (which certainly includes such things as reading magazines and watching television) is associated with low levels of prefrontal cortex activity in the left inferior area, which makes it difficult to form vivid memories. Such automatic or superficial levels of encoding can also lead to something known as ‘change blindn ess’ (Simons & Levin 1998), where people fail to detect changes over time, because of an inability to recall details. This has obvious implications for the introduction of new benefits over time in advertising campaigns, or for repositioning. Memories for past experiences may be classified as either recollections or familiarity. Recalling specific details from memory (e.g. remembering specific benefit claims from an advert) is defined as recollection. Familiarity is when one has a sense of simply being aware of something without recalling specific details (e.g. remembering ‘seeing’ an advert, but not particular content). This difference is important, because when there is divided attention during exposure, there is a significant effect upon recollection, but little or no effect upon familiarity (cf. studies by Craik et al. 1996). †¢Advertising implication: Because one is more likely to pay partial attention rather than full attention to advertising, familiarity with advertising is more likely than recollection of specifics from the advertisement. This underscores the importance of maintaining a consistent ‘look and feel’ over time (Percy et al. 2001), encouraging familiarity, and utilising imagery that will elicit a positive benefit (associated with the brand) even at low or even sub-cognitive levels of attention. Additionally, too much exposure, especially massed exposure, could lead to lower levels of specific ‘recollection’ (as we understand from as long ago as Ebbinghaus 1885). Spaced exposures generally result in better memory, a finding demonstrated in Strong’s simulations (1974) of various media schedules based upon Zielske’s work, and more recently in fMRI studies conducted by Wagner et al. (1998). Remembering to do something in the future (e.g. buying an advertised brand the next time you are shopping) is described by psychologists as  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœprospective memory’. Einstein and McDaniel (1990, 1997 with Shaw) have offered a useful way of looking at this idea of prospecti ve memory, distinguishing between what they call ‘event-based’ prospective memory, where we want to remember to do something at a specific event, and ‘time-based’ prospective memory, when one wishes to remember to do something at a specific time in the future. An example of event-based prospective memory would be wanting to buy a new brand the next time you are at the store. An example of time-based prospective memory would be making sure you are home at 3p.m. to meet the delivery man. Why people experience prospective memory failure is that they are usually so preoccupied with other things in their lives that when the event occurs, or the time arrives when it is necessary to remember to do something, the correct associations in memory are not activated. †¢Advertising implication: Prospective memory failure may be minimised in advertising by using distinctive cues that are unlikely to be associated with other long-term memories (especially for competitive brands). It is important to establish links in memory with the appropriate category need in such a way that when a purchase or usage occasion occurs, it will trigger a memory of the intention to act. This is especially true for recognition-driven brand awareness, which means for most package goods products. In the store point-of-purchase material as well as packaging must be both sufficiently informative to trigger the stored memory of an intention to buy, and be distinctive enough to minimise confusion with other brand memories. Shoppers are almost always in a hurry and preoccupied with other things when they are in a store, and this may get in the way of attending to the appropriate prospective memory cue. This is just the sort of thing that goes on when a salesman creates a distraction, hoping you will forget all about your initial good intentions not to be influenced by his pitch, as we know from the literature on compliant behaviour (cf. Cialdini 2001). THE SIN OF BLOCKING We are all familiar with the sin of blocking, that all-too-familiar experience of recognising someone but not being able to remember their name. According to Schacter (2001), blocking is not the same thing as absent-mindedness or transience. In the case of blocking, the memory has been encoded and stored, unlike absent-mindedness. In fact, an appropriate  retrieval cue could be in place, but the association is just not made. Unlike transience, with blocking, the information is still in memory, but remains just out of reach when required. Because blocking generally occurs when trying to remember names, it potentially can be a problem for brand names. Blocking seems to originate in the left temporal pole, where there is a breakdown in the link made between the characteristics associated with something and the name by which it is known. The reason people often have trouble remembering someone’s name is that a person’s name tends to be isolated in memory from any conceptual knowledge about that person and, as a result, difficult to retrieve. Most models of name retrieval hold that activation of phonological representations in memory occur only after activation of conceptual and visual representations. This is why it is easier to recall something about a person than to recall their name. It is also what can lead to remembering something about a product without being able to recall the brand name. Interestingly, names that are most likely to be blocked are familiar ones which have not recently been encountered (Burke et al. 1991. †¢Advertising implication: Brand names that are not well integrated or related to obvious associations with category need will be highly susceptible to blocking. If there are no logical and immediate links in memory between a brand name and the category need, there is the ri sk of occasional blocking. Arbitrary or more abstract brand names will be blocked more often than descriptive brand names, even when those names are equally familiar to people (cf. Brdant & Valentine 1998). Brand names such as Vitalegs (a herbal gel that relieves tired legs) and Soft Scrub (a cleanser that enables you to clean without harsh scratching) illustrate good descriptive brand names that are less likely to be susceptible to blocking. To minimise blocking, it is necessary to suppress the retrieval of recently encountered information that is related to a recall cue so that the mind is not cluttered with irrelevancies that could interfere with the desired memory. †¢Advertising implication: When a brand possesses identical or similar benefits as the leading brand in its category, it will be that much harder to build an association for those benefits with the brand because of learned interference from advertising for the leading brand. This again suggests the need to have copy (and packaging as well as other marketing communication) unique to a brand in order to avoid multiple connections in  memory that could minimise or override the desired brand-related memory. Certain retrieval inhibitions that lead to blocking can be ‘released’ if we encounter a sufficiently powerful cue (e.g. nondeclarative emotional memories) that helps us re-experience something in the same way in which it was initially experienced. Appropriate triggers in advertising or other marketing communication that elicit the correct emotional memories may help overcome retrieval inhibitions, and release positive memories for a brand. A wonderful advert for Nestl’s Toll House chocolate chips showing a mother with a pan of chocolate chip cookies fresh out of the oven with a little girl looking on in anticipation perfectly illustrates this point. THE SIN OF MISATTRIBUTION If one correctly remembers something learned, but attributes it to the wrong source, this is misattribution. Often referred to as ‘unconscioustransference’, it causes real problems with eyewitness identification. The problem stems from a strong sense of general familiarity, coupled with an absence of specific recollection. While the consequences of misattribution in advertising are obviously not as serious as they are with eyewitness identification, it can nevertheless cause marketers real problems. †¢Advertising implication: Avoiding misattribution requires more than simply retrieving appropriate benefits from memory. The benefit must be linked together in memory in such a way that you make the correct association of the brand with its benefit claim. This linking process is known as ‘memory binding’. All of the important brandbenefit associations in advertising must be bound together by the receiver into a unifying whole at the time of encoding. When advertising for different brands is visually or verbally similar, this memory binding is unlikely to occur, leading to memory conjunction error. Memory conjunction errors occur because people misattribute strong familiarity with similar (even if not identical) things from more than one source as coming from a single source; brand advertising in our case. Interestingly, a strong visualverbal congruence can help minimise misattribution (cf. Schacter et al. 1999). A recent series of adverts for Good Humor-Breyers uses the exact format and headline (‘Less fat, fewer calories, no guilt’) for three brands: Popsicle, Breyers and Klondike. This would seem to almost encourage misattribution. THE SIN OF SUGGESTIBILITY Suggestibility in memory occurs because one tends to include information that has been learned from an outside source as something personally experienced. This information may come from any external source, including advertising or other marketing communication. While suggestibility is similar to the sin of misattribution, misattribution does not require suggestions from outside sources. But when the two combine, it is quite possible for us to develop memories of something which in fact never occurred. †¢Advertising implication: Interestingly, while suggestibility may be a ‘sin’ of memory, in the world of marketing communication this sin may often become a blessing. For example, suggestive questions may produce memory distortions by creating source memory problems. As a result, advertising that utilises questions that remind people of a favourable brand association could occasion a ‘memory’ for that positive experience, even if it never occurred, e.g.: ‘Remember how easy it is to remove those nasty stains when you use our brand?’ Schacter has suggested that if you embellish a fake memory with vivid mental images it should make it look and feel like a true memory. This is based upon work done by Hyman and Pentland (1996) in successfully creating false childhood memories via suggestion, simply by asking subjects about things that never occurred. One of the important conclusions they drew from their work is that these false memories produce vivid visual images. †¢Advertising implication: The application to advertising is obvious. If a suggested favourable experience with a brand is reinforced with a strong visual image of such an experience, it should help seed a memory of a positive experience. In an extension of th ese ideas, we know that one of the best ways to elicit early childhood memories is to ask someone to ‘visualise’ themselves as children. While there is no evidence that anyone can remember anything much earlier than about two years of age, because the areas of the brain needed for episodic memory are not fully mature until that age, with suggestive visualisation techniques one can create false ‘memories’ for events going back almost to birth (cf. Spanos et al. 1999). The key here, as in all suggestibility, is expectancy. If one is instructed to expect something, and it seems plausible, it is possible to create rather strong false memories. †¢Advertising implication: It is very difficult to  suggest a false memory for something that runs counter to a recent or strong existing memory. If you don’t like a brand, advertising is not likely to create a false memory that you do; nor should you try. But if a brand is one of a set of brands used by the receiver, it is certainly possible to suggest more positive experiences with that brand. And if it is a brand they have not used, if the advertising c an relate it to a positive experience from childhood, it is quite possible to suggest positive memories for the benefit, and then link it to the brand. THE SIN OF BIAS The sin of bias reflects how current understandings, beliefs and feelings have the ability to distort how one interprets new experiences and the memory of them. Biases that are associated with memory of past experiences will greatly influence how one perceives and understands new information or situations. Schacter talks about five major types of bias: consistency, change, hindsight, egocentric and stereotypical biases. Gazzaniga (1998) has identified something in the left brain that he calls an ‘interpreter’ that continuously draws upon people’s experiences and understanding of things in order to provide some stability to their psychological world. This would seem to be the neurological source of biases, and utilises such things as inferences, rationalisations and generalisations in relating the past with the present, enabling people to justify their present attitudes with past experiences and feelings. The left brain interpreter, however, is mediated by systems in the right brain that are more attuned to actual representations of what is going on in the world around us. Consistency and change bias Consistency bias reflects a tendency to behave (or believe) today in a fashion consistent with how one remembers similar previous experiences. When this happens, current experiences and feelings are filtered through and made to match memories of those past experiences and feelings. Because memories are not ‘exact’, people tend to infer their past beliefs, attitudes and feelings from what they are experiencing today. †¢Advertising implication: This suggests that for people who hold current positive attitudes toward a brand, advertising could imply they are of long standing. For brand switchers who include a particular brand in their purchase set, advertising  could imply a long standing preference for that brand: ‘You know you have always liked this brand, why not buy more?’ Something similar occurs with change bias, where one remembers something being worse than it actually was, making what they feel now an improvement by comparison. Both consistency and change bias can occur because they help reduce cognitive dissonance, even when someone is not really aware of the source of the inconsistency they are trying to manage (Lieberman et al. 2000). Hindsight bias Hindsight bias is that familiar feeling that one has always known something would happen after becoming aware of the outcome. One is reconstructing the past to make it consistent with the present. The key here seems to be an activation of general knowledge. The new information is integrated with other general knowledge in semantic memory, and is not distinguished as such in making judgements. There is evidence that this selective recall is a function of the general knowledge that influences perception and comprehension, and a vulnerability to misattribution. †¢Advertising implication: Hindsight bias would seem to indicate that when exposed to advertising or other marketing communication one will ‘recall’ benefit claims that are not actually made, but which would have been expected to be there because of the claims that actually were made. Work by Carli (1999) tends to support this idea. Recent adverts for Infusium 23 set up a ‘beforeafter’ case, but lea ve out the ‘before’ picture, with the headline ‘You really think I would let them publish the before picture?’ This clever execution encourages hindsight bias as you imagine the ‘before’ hair problem. Egocentric bias The ‘self ‘ plays an important role in one’s ongoing mental life, and is at the root of egocentric bias. When encoding new information by relating it to the self, memory for that information will be better than other types of encoding. This is because people are more likely to value their own understanding of things, among other reasons because the self-concept plays a key role in regulating mental activity. As Taylor (1989) and her colleagues have pointed out, individuals do not see themselves objectively. †¢Advertising implication: The implication is obvious: include personal references in advertising and other marketing communication. Moreover, given  our tendency to see ourselves in a positive light, it follows that memories related to ourselves will be seen in a self-enhancing light. This suggests that copy asking people to remember a situation in a positive light should encourage an egocentric memory bias, e.g.: ‘remember when you ‘. In the same way, egocentric bias can result from exaggerating the difficulty of past experiences: ‘remember how hard it was to ‘. This idea is well illustrated in a campaign for National Rail’s Senior Railcard, where a dated-looking picture of a young child is featured, with headlines like ‘Remember what it was like to go somewhere for the first time’ and ‘Remember how it felt just to let yourself go’. THE SIN OF PERSISTENCE Research has shown that emotionally charged experiences are better remembered than less emotional occasions. The sin of persistence involves remembering things you wish you would forget, and it is strongly associated with one’s emotional experiences. †¢Advertising implication: Emotionally-charged information automatically attracts attention; and even in the briefest exposure, the emotional significance of it will be retrieved from nondeclarative emotional memory, and evaluated as to how that information will be encoded. Understanding the emotional associations generated by specific advertising is critical. Because people are more likely to remember the central focus of emotionally arousing information rather than peripheral details, it is essential to tie the brand in marketing communication to the appropriate emotion. Otherwise, it will become peripheral to the information conveyed (a problem with a lot of highly entertaining advertising). There is evidence that persiste nce thrives in negative emotional situations such as disappointment, sadness and regret. One’s memory of traumatic experiences is persistent, and while these unwanted memories may occur in any of the senses, visual memories are by far the most common. Research reported by Ochsner (2000) supports this idea. He found that when people recognise a positive visual image they tend to just say it is familiar to them. But when they recognise negative visual images, people relate detailed, specific memories of what they thought and felt when they were originally exposed to the picture. †¢Advertising implication: All of this underscores the importance of the visual images in advertising and other forms of marketing communication. Because persistence thrives in a negative emotional climate,  if advertising illustrates disappointment or problems dealing with a situation, which is resolved by using the brand, this should tap into any persistent memories of product dissatisfaction (always assuming such dissatisfaction). It also suggests that for appropriate product categories (especially those reflecting high-involvement informational decisions such as medical or other insurance, financial planning, and so forth) visual ‘reminders’ of past problems which could be avoided with a b rand should be an effective strategy. Such a strategy should also be equally effective in situations where there is strong psychological risk involved, e.g. reminding young people of a social ‘disaster’ which would never occur if they used our brand. The root of much of this kind of activity is centred within the amygdala, the source of nondeclarative emotional memory. It is the amygdala that regulates memory storage, and can release hormones that can ‘force’ us to remember an experience vividly (LeDoux 1996). And as we have already noted, this response by the amygdala is much more likely to occur for negative than positive experience. †¢Advertising implication: For appropriate product categories, it could make sense to create situations in advertising that suggest possible threats to the receiver’s wellbeing. This ‘threat’ may then well intrude upon active memory when thinking about the category, with our brand linked to avoiding the trouble. This is well illustrated in a recent advert for Imitrex, an ethical drug for migraine, that uses the headline ‘I can’t let a migraine call the shots that’s why I use Imitrex’. SUMMARY Schacter has provided us with an extremely useful framework for looking at memory problems: his seven sins of memory. Each of these ‘imperfections’ (in his words) has the potential for interfering with the successful processing of advertising and other marketing communication. Recent work in neurobiology, utilising the recent technology of fMRIs (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and PET scans (positron emission tomography), has shown us that our earlier understanding of memories as ‘snapshots’ stored away in the mind ready to be recalled is not how the brain works. Memories for objects and experiences are decomposed into a number of different parts and those parts are stored in various areas of the brain, waiting to be reassembled and ‘remembered’. This underscores why memories are rarely  perfect, and why they can be potentially unreliable. As this discussion makes clear, effective communication faces a number of formidable hurdles in m emory. However, forewarned with this knowledge, we are in a better position to avoid or at least minimise some of these potential problems. To help advertising communication overcome the seven sins of memory, advertisers should: †¢ensure the message is carefully integrated with how a brand is understood (transcience) †¢encourage elaboration of points the target is interested in remembering (transcience) †¢use personal references, especially to positive memories (bias) †¢imply current positive brand attitudes are of long standing (bias) †¢tie brands to appropriate emotions (blocking, persistence) †¢use distinctive cues not likely to be associated with other longterm memories (absent-mindedness) †¢create a unique brandbenefit claim link (misattribution) †¢establish links in memory to appropriate category need (absentmindedness) †¢make sure those links are well integrated with obvious associations to the category need (blocking) †¢ensure a consistent ‘look and feel’ over time to encourage familiarity (absent-mindedness) †¢use strong visual images to create or reinforce positive memories associated with the brand (suggestibility) †¢utilise reminders of past problems that could be avoided or solved by the brand (persistence). 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